| 3. | Diversification on and beyond the farm (DBF)
| Livelihood diversification
| Petty trading, charcoal or fuel-wood, timber sales [75] , temporal and permanent migration to urban areas in search of non-existing jobs [69] [76] [77] Selling of household assets, undertake alternative business [67]
Starting fisheries, sheanut and groundnut processing. Home-garden agriculture, food stuff trading, sand mining, “table-top” or “small kiosk” businesses, wage-employment popularly called “By-Day” [68] [78] Shift towards cash crop production [E.g. cashew from [66] [79] ; mangoes and cashew from [66]
Food vending, sale of sachet water and baking [79] Movement into animal farming/production [64] |
| 4. | Government interventions in rural infrastructure, the rural health care services, and risk reduction for the rural population (GIRRD) | Farmers receive subsidized inorganic fertilizers and credits from the government,
| Adopting of fertilizer/pesticide application [22] [63] [68] [80]
|
| 5. | Knowledge management, networks, and governance (KMNG)
| Capacity development programs
Information dissemination through extension visits, Radio programs
| Capacity development in (Northern) Ghana driven by international donors focuses on knowledge and awareness and dissemination of improved technologies [e.g. the West Africa Agricultural Productivity Programme (WAAPP) [81]
Information about weather patterns and agric practices for better adaptation [82] . Agric extension officers creating awareness about changes in climate [83] Education through radio [63] [67] ; text messages from NGOs [67] |