Turbulence model

Low Re type k-e model (Abe-Kondoh-Nagano model [23] , three-dimensional)

Mesh

3,007,680 mesh (wall unit y⁺ < 1)

Scheme

Convection term: second-order upwind

Inflow boundary

U_in = 0.2 m/s (inlet air velocity in the running section, which corresponds to an average of 1.0 m/s air velocity in the test section)

k_in = 3/2(0.1U_in)², , C_μ = 0.09, l_in = 0.02 m

Outflow boundary

U_out = free slip, k_out = free slip, e_out = free slip

Wall treatment

Velocity = no-slip

VHP Equation (6) or (8)

VHP

Passive scalar (turbulent Schmidt Number σ_t = 1.0)