Period

Responsible Organization

Other stakeholders

Major characteristics

Before 1890

Community

Traders

The forest was managed through local communities and the sultanate. High-value indigenous tree species were exploited

1890 to 1990

Forest Department (later Kenya Forest Service—KFS)

Community and Donors

The community did not have legal right over the forest resources but the law allowed them to access defined products through a unitary defined procedure

Donors focusing on tree species trials

1992

KFS; KWS; KEFRI and NMK

Community

Donor

Team very strong

Very strong Donor presence

1997

KFS; KWS; KEFRI; NMK; Community and Friends of Arabuko Sokoke Forest (FoASF)

Donor

Civil society

Team forming

Very strong Donor presence and active civil society

Government piloting participatory forest management system

2005

KFS; KWS; KEFRI; NMK and Community (CFA, ASFADA)

Donor

Civil society

Team very strong

Team implementing

2010

KFS; KWS; KEFRI; NMK and Community (CFA, ASFADA)

Donor

Civil society

Team very strong

Team implementing

Government facilitating other partners

Partnership working with minimal conflicts

2018

KFS; KWS; KEFRI; NMK; Community (CFA, ASFADA) and FoASF

Donor

Civil society

Private investors

Mining companies

Nature lovers

Team very weak

Team storming

The team faced conflicts

Government weakening and civil society getting strong

The team not able to manage external influence with potential to have a negative effect

on forest management