| Author(s) | Country | Period-Sample | Methodology | Result |
| | Canada | Cross-sectional survey (3000 respondents conducted face to face) in 1982 | OLS | (+) R to OvEdu for M in jobs with HighEdu; Lower pay for HighEdu for M in jobs with low education. For F, R to OvEdu and UnEdu are insignificant for all levels of required education. |
| | Spain | 1994-2001 | OLS | Strong mismatch carries a pay penalty that ranges from 13% to 27%. |
| | The University of Naples “Parthenope” | Random sampling by graduation year (1999, 2000, 2001, and 2002). | Probit regression analyses with selection | Prob (OvEd) significantly affected by M, HighEdu, channels used to enter the labour market, job location and job sector applied for. F, lower HighEdu achievers and graduates working in trade/sales or information systems sectors were more likely to be OvEdu than other subjects, whereas use of further education to enter the labour market decreased the probability of being over-educated. OvEdu workers were found to have a high probability of low earnings. OvEdu and low earnings induced workers to change jobs. |
| | Italy | 2004-2006 Original data including over 3600 face-to-face interviews | OLS | UnEdu employees outnumber OvEdu ones and R to required education and OvEdu are lower than in other industrialised countries. Individual heterogeneous ability, as captured by individual skills, is a significant determinant of wage, although the inclusion of direct measures of required and provided skills do not substantially affect the estimated coefficients of the R to investment in education. |
| | Spain | 1995-2006 Spanish Wage Structure Survey (WSS) | ORU estimation | R to education have declined; the R associated with the job’s required education is greater than that corresponding to the worker’s actual schooling, and that the R on an additional year of attained education is positive but less than that of an additional year of required education. |