Authors/Year | Sample | Impact |
| UK academics (2008-2009) | Negative: Spinout activity (Gender: female) |
| United States-based scientists awarded a research grant by the National Cancer Institute between 1998 and 2002 to commercialize their research. Of those research grant awards the largest 20% | Non-significant |
| Scientists selected randomly from three universities in Saudi Arabia: King Abdulaziz University, King Fahad University and King Saud University | Non-significant |
| Academic scientists in 73 German universities | Negative (Gender: female) |
| Researchers at the Max Planck Society (MPS) at different career stages in Germany | Negative: Business Owner (Gender: female) Non-significant: Nascent Entrepreneurs Non-significant: Nascent Entrepreneurs |
| Researchers at the Max Planck Society (MPS) at different career stages in Germany | Negative: Academic business start-ups (Gender: female) |