Categories | Mode of action | Effects | References |
Crops (legumes &cereals). | The release of phytotoxic compounds | Reduced crop yield as well as carrying capacity of pastures. | [44] [46] [48] |
Wild animals/livestock | Weakens the immune system by reducing the number of WBC | Skin lesions, mouth ulcers, anorexia, pruritus, alopecia, diarrhea, eye irritation. | [35] [50] [51] [52] [58] |
Human health | Induction of cytotoxicity also reacts with cytokines. | Allergic, bronchitis, skin inflammation, asthma, blisters, hay fever, erythematous eruption | [53] [55] . |
Soil | Utilizing soil nutrients | Soil infertility | [48] [52] . |
Vegetation/landscape composition | Disrupt the structure of the natural ecosystem and displace numerous native plant species. | Degradation of natural ecosystem and biodiversity, allelopathic effects, toxic to flora and fauna, reduced species richness. | [59] [61] |
Shrinking of biodiversity |