Lifestyle changes

Musculoskeletal and neurological causes

Endocrine disorders

Drugs

Vitamin D deficiency

Low calcium intake

Frequent falling

Inadequate physical activity

Smoking, alcohol abuse

Epilepsy

Multiple sclerosis

Muscular dystrophy

Parkinson’s disease

Spinal cord injury

Stroke

Hypercalciuria with or without renal stones

Diabetes mellitus

Hypogonadal states

Hyperprolactinemia

Hyperparathyroidism

Hyperthyroidism

Cushing’s syndrome

Acromegaly, Central obesity

Excess glucocorticoids

Excess thyroid hormones

Anticoagulants (heparin)

GnRH agonists, Anticonvulsants

Aromatase inhibitors, Thiazolidinediones, Opiates, Cyclosporine, Rifampicin, Exchange resins, Methotrexate, Alcohol

Gastrointestinal disorders

Hematological disorders

Rheumatological and autoimmune diseases

Others

Gastrectomy

Inflammatorybowel disease

Coeliac disease

Intestinal bypass surgery

Primary biliary cirrhosis

Malabsorption

Pancreatic insufficiency

Multiple myeloma

Hemolytic anemia, hemoglobinopathies

Myelo- and lymphoproliferative disorders

Skeletal metastases (diffuse or localized)

Gaucher’s disease

Ankylosing spondylitis

Rheumatoid arthritis

Systemic lupus erythematosus

AIDS/HIV

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

End-stage renal disease

Sarcoidosis

Weight loss