Vehicle/

Vehicular User

Software flaw (Weak message propagation algorithm)

Privacy leakage of sensitive information

Malware integration

Updating antivirus, Sandbox approach [70]

Availability/Authentication

Vehicle

OBU vulnerability

Unauthorised manipulation of routing table

Jamming attacks at vehicle level

Frequency hopping, Multiple radio transceivers

Availability

Vehicle

Vehicular hardware flaws

Disclosure of sensitive information

Sensor impersonation

SPECS [71]

Authentication

Vehicle

OBU vulnerabilities, Sensors malfunctions

Network flooding with wrong information

Bogus information

ECDSA [72]

Authentication/Integrity

Vehicle

Insecure cryptographic algorithms

Illegal software updates

Remote firmware updates

Secure firmware updates over the air (FOTA) [73]

Authentication

Vehicle/

Vehicular User

Software flaws, Weak Password

Privacy leakage of sensitive data

Social engineering attack

Encrypted and strong password for message communication

Integrity/Privacy

Vehicle

Ohysical access to vehicles

Damaging sensors to perform correctly

Physical damage to vehicles

Access control

Authentication

Vehicular User

OBU vulnerabilities, Inseucre wireless communication

Revelation of users identity

User privacy disclosure

Holistic approach for data transmission [74]

Privacy/Authentication

Information

Broadcast nature of messages via wireless communication channel

Revelation of sensitive information and user’s private credentials

Eavesdropping

Strong encrypted message for user’s communication

Privacy/Authentication

Information

OBU vulnerabilities, Insecure wireless communication channel

Prevents vehicles to receive sensitive information and use network services

Jamming attacks

Assign IPs to vehicles and drop duplicate IP during message transfer [58] , Change packet delivery ratio (PDR) based on PDR rate decrease [75] , DJAVAN [76]

Availability

Information

Insecure wireless communication channel

Messages alterations

Impersonation attacks

Identity-based batch verification scheme [77]

Authentication

Information

Non-encrypted messages, Insecure wireless communication channel

Message modification with wrong and compromised messages

MITM attacks

Strong cryptographic techniques

Availability/Confidentiality

Information

Vulnerable wireless communication channel

Message manipulation and dropping

Spoofing attacks

Multi-antenna system with known movements [78] , Secure in-region verification [79]

Authentication

RSU, Wired communication, Central entity

Flaws in routing table and non-encrypted messages

Data leakage on back-end wired channel

Sybil attacks

Position verification of neighbouring nodes [80] , VANET PKI [17] , RobSAD [81]

Authentication/Availability