Public Policy

Social Impact

Spatial Impact

Infrastructure development (e.g., New York City subway system in the early 20th century)

Promoted population density

Transformed Manhattan into a globally renowned commercial and financial center

Education and welfare policies (e.g., Sweden)

Enhanced social mobility

Equitably distributed opportunities in urban areas

Redlining policies (1930s to 1960s in the United States)

Exacerbated racial and class divisions

Resulted in poverty and decline in certain areas, affecting the spatial distribution within cities