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Lysgaard

U-shaped curve hypothesis: it pointed out that the cross-cultural mental state of international students presents a U-shaped curve. That is to say, the mental state of students who have stayed in the US for 6 - 18 months is worse than that of those who have stayed in the US for less than 6 months or more than 18 months.

Oberg, 1960

Four-stage theory: stages of honeymoon, crisis, recovery and adaptation.

Ward, 1998

Ward, 1996

From four time points measurement of Japanese students in New Zealand, it was observed that their depression disorder is worst when they first come to New Zealand. While in the other three time periods, the changes in depression are not apparent. The result cannot prove the U-shaped curve hypothesis.

From time point measurement of Malaysian and Singaporean students in New Zealand, it was observed that students’ mental changes resemble an inverted U-shape, that is to say, those who have been in New Zealand for a month or over a year have the strongest mental shift.

Gullahorn, 1963

W-curve: honeymoon period; struggle period; dispute period; adaptation period; re-dispute period—still uncertain of some complicated problems; early period before returning—looking forward to returning with joy; shock after returning—a feeling of estrangement when contacting with people and in daily life.