Country

Short-run causality

Long-run causality ECT_t−1 = 0

MAN does not cause GDP

GDP does not cause MAN

GDP

MAN

Benin

11.05* (0.026)

15.93* (0.003)

−0.36* (−3.18)

−1.08* (−3.61)

Burkina

1.47 (0.224)

0.17 (0.676)

−0.09 (−1.26)

−0.65* (−3.37)

Cote d’Ivoire

20.03* (0.000)

4.26 (0.371)

0.03 (0.47)

−0.28* (−2.05)

Gambia

0.30 (0.583)

0.40 (0.524)

0.09 (1.30)

−0.49* (−4.65)

Ghana

1.95 (0.162)

0.97 (0.324)

−0.06* (−3.21)

0.02 (0.22)

Mali

0.35 (0.554)

0.05 (0.813)

−0.23* (−3.77)

−0.03 (−0.31)

Niger

30.70* (0.000)

3.62 (0.605)

−0.07 (−1.58)

−0.37* (−3.21)

Nigeria

1.21 (0.270)

0.52 (0.46)

−0.11** (−1.85)

0.09 (1.51)

Senegal

0.42 (0.515)

0.99 (0.319)

-

-

Sierra Leone

13.81* (0.003)

3.87 (0.275)

-

-

Togo

0.11 (0.738)

1.293 (0.255)

0.01 (0.29)

−0.45* (−2.89)