Full model

Path coefficient-Original

Path coefficient-Mean

SD

t-value

Caring behavior –> Nursing competence

0.64

0.64

0.065

9.891***

Caring behavior –> Self reflection

0.21

0.21

0.117

1.748

Nursing competence –> Professional socialization

0.61

0.62

0.068

8.968***

Self-reflection –> Nursing competence

0.29

0.28

0.081

3.543***

Learning effectiveness –> Caring behavior

0.47

0.47

0.082

5.727***

Learning effectiveness –> Self-reflection

0.32

0.32

0.095

3.318**

Female

Path coefficient-Original

Path coefficient-Mean

SD

t-value

Caring behavior –> Nursing competence

0.59

0.60

0.077

7.717***

Caring behavior –> Self reflection

0.17

0.19

0.149

1.138

Nursing competence –> Professional socialization

0.57

0.59

0.080

7.133***

Self-reflection –> Nursing competence

0.31

0.30

0.105

2.942**

Learning effectiveness –> Caring behavior

0.50

0.51

0.094

5.337***

Learning effectiveness –> Self-reflection

0.37

0.36

0.128

2.886**

Male

Path coefficient-Original

Path coefficient-Mean

SD

t-value

Caring behavior –> Nursing competence

0.77

0.74

0.103

7.458***

Caring behavior –> Self reflection

0.29

0.30

0.218

1.316

Nursing competence –> Professional socialization

0.70

0.72

0.098

7.193***

Self-reflection –> Nursing competence

0.22

0.23

0.108

2.004*

Learning effectiveness –> Caring behavior

0.37

0.39

0.179

2.080*

Learning effectiveness –> Self-reflection

0.22

0.24

0.183

1.222

Permutation test

Path coefficient-Female

Path coefficient-Male

Difference (female - male)

t-value

Caring behavior –> Nursing competence

0.59

0.77

−0.002

0.277

Caring behavior –> Self-reflection

0.17

0.29

−0.028

0.716

Nursing competence –> Professional socialization

0.57

0.70

−0.037

0.452

Self-reflection –> Nursing competence

0.31

0.22

0.008

0.665

Learning effectiveness –> Caring behavior

0.50

0.37

−0.019

0.537

Learning effectiveness –> Self-reflection

0.37

0.22

0.005

0.533