| Researchers | Definition |
| Goffman (1956) | an emotion that results from a breakdown in everyday social encounters. |
| Sattler (1981) | individuals feel embarrassed when receive unexpected attention |
| Edelman (1987) | an “uncomfortable psychological state that has a devastating effect on social interaction.” |
| Sharkey (1992) | result of the difference between an individual’s ideal identity and his manifest identity |
| Silver (2012) | An unpleasant, restless, powerful emotional state. |
| Miller (2001) | a repulsive, humiliating state of shame and frustration in the context of public social dilemmas. |