| Aristotle (monism) | / | / | Hule [eidos] |
| Newton (monism) | / | / | Particle [(position, momentum)] |
| Plato (Allegory of the Sun) | actual world | Idea (=sunlight) | Idea world |
| Scholasticism (Anselmus) |
| universal | individual |
| Scholasticism (Thomas Aquinas) | human intellect (universale post rem) | divine intellect (universale ante rem) | Individual (universal in re) |
| Descartes, Locke, Kant (epistemology) | [A] (=mind) | [B] (=body (≈sensory organ)) (Mediating of A and C) | [C] (=matter) |
| Wittgenstein (analytic philosophy) | logic | ||
| quantum language | Measurer [measured value] | measuring instrument [observable] | System [state] |