| Fracture type simulated | Method of creation of simulated fracture | Loading protocol | CLS (N∙mm−1); Pf | Ref. # |
| Comminuted, extra-articular, dorsally-unstable fracture | Osteotomy created 20 mm proximal to the articular surface at the Lister tubercle; then, 6-mm-wide dorsally-based wedge removed | Axial compression, at 1 N∙s−1, to a maximum load of 90 N | 430 ± 200 (load applied at centera) 340 ± 140 (load applied radial off-centera) 440 ± 200 (load applied ulnar off-centera) 250 ± 110 (load applied volar off-centera) 150 ± 92 (load applied dorsal off-centera) | Liporice et al. [20] |
| Dorsally- comminuted fracture | An incomplete 1-mm wide dorsal wedge osteotomy that started 2 0 mm from the articular surface | Cyclically loaded, at 100 N∙s−1, from preload of 100 N to a compression load of 250 N. Either 5,000 or 20,000 cycles at 1 Hz | 400 ± 100 Pf = 1000 ± 300 N | Blythe et al. [23] |
| Extra-articular, severe comminuted fracture | 10-mm gap (10 mm volar height, 10 mm dorsal height, 10 mm radial height, 10 mm ulnar height), 20 mm from the distal articular surface | Loaded, at 2 mm s−1, to failure in axial compression | 107 ± 32 Pf = 822 ± 448 N | Osada et al. [27] |
| Colles-type extra-articular fracture | 15-mm dorsally-based wedge osteotomy, centered 22.5 mm proximal to the articular margin at Lister’s tubercle | 3 initial loading ramps to 300 N compression, at 1 N∙s−1 | 137 ± 51 (large plate) 153 ± 34 (small plate) Pf = 747 ± 227 N (large plate) Pf = 919 ± 197 N (small plate) | Koh et al. [28] |
| Severely comminuted, fracture | Transverse osteotomy 20 mm unstable, extra-articular proximal to the articular surface; then, 15-mm fracture gap created making a second transverse osteotomy 15 mm proximal to the initial osteotomy | Axial compression, at 1 N∙s-1, to a maximum load of 50 N | 460 ± 10 (load applied at central locationa) 150 ± 2 (load applied at dorsal location) 240 ± 3 (load applied at volar location) | Strauss et al. [29] |
| Extra-articular AO-type A3 fracture | Excision of 10-mm wide bone segment, centered 20 mm proximal to the tip of the radial styloid | Static axial compression force of 250 N | 83 ± 62 (4 locking screws in the distal row of the plate); Pf = 99 ± 60 N 208 ± 60 (4 locking screws alternately in the distal and proximal rows of the plate); Pf = 228 ± 56 N; 178 ± 82 (3 locking screws the proximal row of the plate); Pf = 245 ± 48 N; 429 ± 224 (7 locking screws filling all screw holes in the distal and proximal rows of the plate); Pf = 305 ± 106 N | Mehling et al. [30] |
| Extra-articular OTA-type 23-A3 fracture | Excision of 10-mm wide dorsal wedge, centered 20 mm from the articular margin of the distal radius | Static axial compression force of 130 N | 188 ± 53 (4 locking screws in the distal row of the plate and 3 locking screws in the proximal row of the plate) | Mehling et al. [31] |
| Extra-articular OA-23 A3 fracture | A dorsal wedge osteotomy, completely separating the volar cortex (1 mm gap) | Static axial compression force, at 1 mm s−1, until either a 20% drop in force or 3 mm displacement is reached | 706 ± 103 (distal screw tips are flushed with or are just short of the distal cortex (Group A; 660 ± 124 (target screw length) = 75% of that in Group A construct) | Baumbach et al. [32] |
| 4-part AO C3 fracture | With all soft tissues in place, a 15-mm wedge osteotomy created 20 mm proximal to the articular surface; volar cortex fractured manually; 2nd osteotomy created directly ulnar to the Lister tubercle in sagittal plane; 3rd osteotomy created coronally in the medial fragment; and, then, coronal cut made from fracture site to articular surface of the radius | Pre-load of 100 N; then, cyclical loading (20 N - 230 N), at 2 Hz, for 6000 cycles; finally, load to failure, at 2 mm∙s−1 | 379 ± 146 Pf = 1109 ± 305 N | Marshall et al. [33] |