Control variables: background

Model 1

Model 2

Denmark

Norway

Sweden

Denmark

Norway

Sweden

Student gender (reference: “boy”)

Girl

1.17^*

1.42^***

1.35^***

1.08

1.20^*

1.14

Parents’ education attainments (reference: “lower secondary level, ISCED 1, 2”)

Upper secondary level (ISCED 3)

2.06^***

3.01^**

2.94^***

1.96^**

2.47^*

3.10^**

Post-secondary level or short tertiary level (ISCED 4, 5B)

4.22^***

5.16^***

5.79^***

3.97^***

3.91^**

5.96^***

Tertiary level or higher (ISCED 5A or 6)

7.92^***

9.68^***

8.46^***

6.92^***

7.43^***

8.14^***

Independent variables: teaching practices

Students are able to disagree openly with their teachers (reference: “never”)

Rarely

0.90

1.13

1.62

Sometimes

1.31

1.22

1.75

Often

2.36^*

1.68

2.97^**

Teachers encourage students to make up their own minds (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.06

1.50

0.95

Sometimes

1.35

2.06

1.12

Often

2.41^**

3.31^**

1.76

Teachers encourage students to express their opinions (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.55

1.94

0.74

Sometimes

1.32

1.96

0.84

Often

1.64

2.24

1.01

Students bring up current political events for discussion in class (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.30

1.01

1.07

Sometimes

1.19

1.03

1.20

Often

1.53^**

0.00

1.26

Students express opinions in class even when their opinions are different from most of the other students (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.96

1.46

1.34

Sometimes

1.85

1.68

1.64

Often

1.44

2.60^**

1.69

Teachers encourage students to discuss the issue with people having different opinions (reference: “never”)

Rarely

0.87

0.98

0.80

Sometimes

0.69^*

0.73

0.65^*

Often

0.66^*

0.65

0.67

Teachers present several sides of the issues when explaining them in class (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.31

1.67

0.90

Sometimes

1.58^**

1.70

1.07

Often

1.80^***

1.91^*

1.44

Variance explained (Nagelkerke R²)

8.3%

8.3%

7.2%

19%

17.5%

15.5%

Chi-square/df

265.7/4

175.2/4

163.7/4

632.9/25

355.6/25

353.7/25