Reason

Comment

Citation

Design-reality gaps

Concern hard-soft gaps (between technology and social context); private-public gaps (differences between the public and the private sector); and country context gaps (variances between counties)

Pinto and Mantel (1990), Heeks (2001, 2003), Dada (2006), Gil-Garcia and Pardo (2005), Ebrahim and Irani (2005), Almarabeh and AbuAli (2010), Sarantis et al. (2011), Goldfinch (2007), Gauld (2007), Nielsen and Pedersen (2014), Luk (2009), Guha and Chakrabarti (2014), Ojiako et al. (2008), Scholl (2003), Kamal, Weerakkody, and Irani (2011) and Tan et al. (2005)

Missing focus

Missing or ambiguous business focus and/or unclear objectives or absence of need

Pinto and Mantel (1990), McKinsey and Company (2012), Sarantis et al. (2011), Imamoglou and Gozlu (2008), Kappelman et al. (2006), Scholl (2003), Kamal et al. (2011), Tan et al. (2005), Boehm (2000) and Nelson, (2007)

Content issues

Project scope definition, change management, shifting requirements and or/technical complexity

Pinto and Mantel (1990), McKinsey and Company (2012), Gil-Garcia and Pardo (2005), Almarabeh and AbuAli (2010), Sarantis et al. (2011), Verner et al. (2008), Hidding and Nicholas (2009), Gauld (2007), Kappelman et al. (2006), Luk (2009), Ojiako et al. (2008), Scholl (2003), Kamal et al. (2011), Tan et al. (2005), Boehm (2000), Aikins (2012), Fairley and Willshire (2003) and Loukis and Charalabidis (2011)

Skill issues

Project unaligned team and/or lack of skills

Pinto and Mantel (1990), McKinsey and Company (2012), Gil-Garcia and Pardo (2005), Ebrahim and Irani (2005), Gichoya (2005), Verner et al. (2008) and Luk (2009)

Execution issues

Unrealistic schedule and/or reactive planning; and misinformation with regard to massive and unaccounted cost overruns, benefit shortfalls, and waste

Pinto and Mantel (1990), McKinsey and Company (2012), Verner et al. (2008), Imamoglou and Gozlu (2008), Hidding and Nicholas (2009), Gauld (2007), Kappelman et al. (2006), Luk (2009), Ojiako et al. (2008), Scholl (2003), Kamal et al. (2011), Tan et al. (2005), Boehm (2000), Pardo and Scholl (2002), Fairley and Willshire (2003) and Loukis and Charalabidis (2011)

Regulatory issues

Lack in or missing of corresponding legal framework, policy and standards. Unpredictability of changes in the regulatory framework, failure due to legal disputes, implications of legal certainty in the digital realm

Gil-Garcia and Pardo (2005), Luk (2009) and Paulin (2014, 2015)

External factors

Outside the project organization

Goldfinch (2007), Nielsen and Pedersen (2014), Luk (2009), Guha and Chakrabarti (2014) and Tan et al. (2005)

Missing user satisfaction

Projects do not succeed in meeting users’ expectations and project products are not of public interest and use

Pinto and Mantel (1990), Imamoglou and Gozlu (2008), Luk (2009), Tan et al. (2005) and Janssen et al., (2013), (2015)

E-government project failure factors