Country

Short-run causality

Long-run causality ECT_t−1 = 0

MAN does not cause NMAN

NMAN does not cause MAN

NMAN

MAN

Benin

0.35 (0.551)

1.518 (0.217)

−0.21** (−1.97)

−0.26 (−1.27)

Burkina

0.55 (0.457)

0.06 (0.791)

0.02 (0.29)

−0.45* (−3.33)

Cote d’Ivoire

16.69* (0.002)

12.97* (0.011)

-

-

Gambia

1.83 (0.398)

3.50 (0.173)

0.09 (0.911)

−0.53* (−4.61)

Ghana

4.52* (0.033)

0.01 (0.901)

−0.000 (−0.027)

−0.10* (−2.04)

Mali

0.001 (0.937)

0.05 (0.807)

−0.21* (−3.72)

−0.03 (−0.33)

Niger

33.22* (0.000)

2.76 (0.428)

−0.24* (−4.64)

−0.07 (−0.48)

Nigeria

14.03* (0.000)

0.57 (0.749)

−0.76* (−3.57)

−0.04 (−0.23)

Senegal

0.66 (0.415)

0.21 (0.640)

0.19 (0.82)

−0.47* (−2.19)

Sierra Leone

8.63* (0.034)

3.18 (0.363)

−0.00 (−0.26)

−0.01** (−1.98)

Togo

0.19 (0.662)

0.33 (0.532)

−0.49*(−3.14)

−0.13 (−0.28)