Variables

Spatial-lag model-maximum likelihood estimation (coldspots)

Spatial-lag model-maximum likelihood estimation (hotspots)

Agro-ecological and environmental characteristics

People employed in agriculture (PEA)

0.2653^***

(0.0870)

0.3521^***

(0.0525)

Average annual rainfall (AVRA)

−0.0151^***

(0.0039)

−0.0175^***

(0.0071)

Soil classification (SOC)

1.2311 ^ns

(4.17198)

−5.20147^***

(1.48753)

Coastal bordered or international land bordered senatorial districts (CBSD/ILBSD)

−15.7029^***

(4.9570)

−13.3856^***

(2.9374)

Demographic characteristics

Female headed households (FEH)

−1.0374^***

(0.2074)

−0.2028^***

(0.0176)

Male headed households (MAH)

0.7734^***

(0.2231)

0.3851^***

(0.0495)

Literate adult (LA)

−0.3143^*

(0.1863)

−1.1444^***

(0.1102)

Household size (HS)

3.8706^**

(1.7456)

5.4767^***

(3.8574)

Infrastructural characteristics

Connection to public electricity (CPELECT)

0.1391^**

(0.0644)

−0.2683^ns

(0.1955)

Access to safe sanitation (SAS)

−0.09585^*

(0.0516)

−0.4082^***

(0.0367)

Access to safe water source (SWS)

−0.1364^*

(0.0728)

−0.3325^***

(0.0300)

Access to health facility (AHF)

−0.3441^***

(0.1081)

−0.2740^***

(0.0827)

Sociopolitical and economic characteristics

Household membership of association (HMA)

−1.3944^**

(0.3418)

−0.8860^***

(0.1679)

Access to credit facility (ACF)

−0.5731^***

(0.2664)

−0.8510^***

(0.1855)

Constant

225.833^***

(34.4887)

228.5118^***

(42.5780)

Pseudo R²

0.8765

0.8944

Lag parameter (rho)

0.2114

0.3420

Log likelihood

−72.7904

−30.9423

Akaike info criterion

189.581

105.885

Schwarz criterion

218.889

130.866