Control variables: background

Model 1

Model 2

Denmark

Norway

Sweden

Denmark

Norway

Sweden

Student gender (reference: “boy”)

Girl

1.17*

1.42***

1.35***

1.08

1.20*

1.14

Parents’ education attainments (reference: “lower secondary level, ISCED 1, 2”)

Upper secondary level (ISCED 3)

2.06***

3.01**

2.94***

1.96**

2.47*

3.10**

Post-secondary level or short tertiary level (ISCED 4, 5B)

4.22***

5.16***

5.79***

3.97***

3.91**

5.96***

Tertiary level or higher (ISCED 5A or 6)

7.92***

9.68***

8.46***

6.92***

7.43***

8.14***

Independent variables: teaching practices

Students are able to disagree openly with their teachers (reference: “never”)

Rarely

0.90

1.13

1.62

Sometimes

1.31

1.22

1.75

Often

2.36*

1.68

2.97**

Teachers encourage students to make up their own minds (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.06

1.50

0.95

Sometimes

1.35

2.06

1.12

Often

2.41**

3.31**

1.76

Teachers encourage students to express their opinions (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.55

1.94

0.74

Sometimes

1.32

1.96

0.84

Often

1.64

2.24

1.01

Students bring up current political events for discussion in class (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.30

1.01

1.07

Sometimes

1.19

1.03

1.20

Often

1.53**

0.00

1.26

Students express opinions in class even when their opinions are different from most of the other students (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.96

1.46

1.34

Sometimes

1.85

1.68

1.64

Often

1.44

2.60**

1.69

Teachers encourage students to discuss the issue with people having different opinions (reference: “never”)

Rarely

0.87

0.98

0.80

Sometimes

0.69*

0.73

0.65*

Often

0.66*

0.65

0.67

Teachers present several sides of the issues when explaining them in class (reference: “never”)

Rarely

1.31

1.67

0.90

Sometimes

1.58**

1.70

1.07

Often

1.80***

1.91*

1.44

Variance explained (Nagelkerke R2)

8.3%

8.3%

7.2%

19%

17.5%

15.5%

Chi-square/df

265.7/4

175.2/4

163.7/4

632.9/25

355.6/25

353.7/25