Environmental (geographic aspects) | Low level of soil molybdenum ;Soil salinity; Thermal; Vulcanization-process in factory; Water pollution by petroleum products |
Dietary | Aflatoxins; Asbestos; Bush tea; Fungi (Fusarium, Altemaria spp.); Malze consumption; Nutritional deficiencies of vitamin A, E, and C; Niacin; Zinc |
Chronic irritation | Achalasia; Scleotherapy by injection; Reflux esophagitis (Barrett’s esophagus); Lye ingestion |
Habit | Alcohol beverage; Smoking |
Cultural | Low socioeconomic status; Race |
Miscellaneous | Hiatal herniation; Ionizing radiation; Papillomavirus infection; Pharyngoesophageal diverticulum; Plummer-Vinson syndrome; Sprue; Tylosis |